THE USE OF DIGITAL TECHNOLOGIES BY CRIMINAL GROUPS IN KAZAKHSTAN: CHALLENGES FOR CRIMINAL JUSTICE, THE RULE OF LAW AND STRONG INSTITUTIONS (SDG 16)
Article Sidebar
Main Article Content
Abstract
The rapid digitalisation of the economy and public administration under the "Digital Kazakhstan" program has been accompanied by the growing use of digital technologies by organised criminal groups, which threatens peace, justice, and strong institutions (SDG 16), as well as digital infrastructure (SDG 9). Despite growing scholarly attention, no systematic comparative analysis of Kazakhstan's cybercrime legislation against international frameworks has been conducted. This study examines the compliance of Kazakhstan's legislative and institutional system for combating cybercrime with international standards, primarily the Budapest Convention on Cybercrime, in order to identify regulatory and institutional gaps. The study employs normative legal research and a structured comparative legal analysis of Articles 272–274 of the Criminal Code of Kazakhstan against the legislation of Estonia, Poland and Turkey, using national legislation, international legal acts, official statistics of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Republic of Kazakhstan for 2020–2023, and peer-reviewed publications indexed in Scopus and Web of Science. The results show that registered cybercrimes increased from 2,130 in 2020 to 5,120 in 2022 (a 2.4-fold increase), cryptocurrency-related offences rose from 110 to 922, only 27% of cyber incidents are officially recorded, the share of cases reaching court fell from 34% to 27.7%, and only 18% of law enforcement officers have digital forensics training. The findings suggest that Kazakhstan's cybercrime legislation is fragmented and only partially harmonised with the Budapest Convention, particularly regarding the definition of cybercrime, organised cybercrime, cryptocurrency regulation, access to electronic evidence and international cooperation, and that its capacity for accountable and effective law enforcement remains substantially weaker than that of Estonia and Poland.
JEL Classification Codes: K14, K33, K42, O33.
Downloads
Article Details
Section
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
How to Cite
References
Alzhankulova, S., Abdualipova, K., & Myrzakhanova, S. (2022). Some problematic issues of legal regulation of copyright and related rights in the Republic of Kazakhstan. The Scientific Heritage, (90), 36–40. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6616140
Amanbayeva, A. G., Khan, V. V., Yensebayeva, A. R., Karatayev, T. Z., & Kussainova, L. K. (2022). Investigative Activity in the Investigation of Crimes against the Sexual Integrity of Minors. Medicine and Law, 41(3), 333–350.
Artemchuk, M., Marukhlenko, O., Sokrovolska, N., Mazur, H., & Riznyk, D. (2024). The impact of an economic recession on the financial support of state functions during crises. Theoretical and Practical Research in Economic Fields, 15(2), 350. https://doi.org/10.14505/tpref.v15.2(30).15
Asli, M. R. (2023). Digital trends of criminology and criminal justice of the 21st century. Journal of Digital Technologies and Law, 1(1), 235–250. https://doi.org/10.21202/jdtl.2023.9
Bissaliyev, M. S., Susi, M., & Shakirov, K. (2025). Convergence between and among the Chinese, the EU and Kazakhstan approaches towards personal data protection against the AI in the digital sphere. Chinese Journal of International Law, 24(2), jmaf011. https://doi.org/10.1093/chinesejil/jmaf011
Di Nicola, A. (2022). Towards digital organized crime and digital sociology of organized crime. Trends in Organized Crime. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12117-022-09457-y
European Parliament and Council of the European Union (2019). Regulation (EU) 2019/881 on ENISA (the European Union Agency for Cybersecurity) and on information and communications technology cybersecurity certification (Cybersecurity Act). https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2019/881/oj/eng
Fehr, C. (2019). Criminal law and digital technologies: An institutional approach to rule creation in a rapidly advancing and complex setting. McGill Law Journal, 65(1), 67. https://doi.org/10.7202/1074418ar
Gaile, D., Tumalavičius, V., Skrastiņa, U., & Načiščionis, J. (2020). Modern economics in the context of security: Efficient use of funds and reduction of risks as one of the aims of public procurement. Entrepreneurship and Sustainability Issues, 8(1), 49–59. https://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2020.8.1(4)
Grabosky, P. N., Smith, R. G., & Wright, P. (2018). Introduction. Crime in the Digital Age (pp. 1–18). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203794401-1
Ibrayeva, G., Tleugazina, D., & Ramazan, A. (2025). Social networks as a driving force for legal change: Emotional interaction and the impact of court broadcasts in Kazakhstan. Lecture Notes in Computer Science (pp. 257–271). Springer Nature Switzerland. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-93536-7_18
Jilkishiyev, R., & Begaliyev, Y. (2024). Problems of investigation of crimes in the field of information technology. Pakistan Journal of Criminology, 16(3), 97–114. https://doi.org/10.62271/pjc.16.3.97.114
Kakeshov, B. D., & Beishembek, A. K. (2022). Criminal policy, law enforcement practice and digitalization as tools for corruption prevention in judicial authorities. European and Asian Law Review, 5(3), 22–27. https://doi.org/10.34076/27821668_2022_5_3_22
Kalguzhinova, A., Mashabaev, A., & Ozbekov, D. (2023). Some issues in countering criminal offences in the field of informatization and communications in the Republic of Kazakhstan. Bulletin of Science and Practice, (8), 154–161. https://doi.org/10.33619/2414-2948/93/16
Kambarov, A., Karazhanov, M., Sabitov, S., Baigundinov, Y., & Temirgazin, R. (2024). Measures to prevent criminal offences in the field of informatization and communications in the Republic of Kazakhstan. Law, State and Telecommunications Review, 16(2), 276–294. https://doi.org/10.26512/lstr.v16i2.50807
Khamit, E., Mukhamadieva, G., Togaibaeva, S., Mashabayev, A., Salykova, A., & Karakushev, S. (2024). Criminological characterization of internet fraud: Experience of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Pakistan Journal of Criminology, 16(4), 809–822. https://doi.org/10.62271/pjc.16.4.809.822
Kryvoshein, V. (2023). Transformation of political perceptions in the age of information technologies: Analyzing the impact on political beliefs. Futurity of Social Sciences, 1(3), 20–32. https://doi.org/10.57125/fs.2023.09.20.02
Kyzylkhojaeva, A. (2024). Analysis of criminal justice and cyber crime in the context of artificial intelligence through the lenses of international organizations. Alatoo Academic Studies, 24(2), 349–361. https://doi.org/10.17015/aas.2024.242.28
Lasagni, G. (2023). The impact of digital technology on Italian criminal proceedings. Zeitschrift für die gesamte Strafrechtswissenschaft, 135(3), 598–619. https://hdl.handle.net/11585/964022
Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Republic of Kazakhstan (2019). Order No. 431 of 16 May 2019 on introducing amendments and additions to Order No. 995 of the Minister of Internal Affairs of the Republic of Kazakhstan dated 5 December 2015 ‘On approval of the model regulation on advisory consultative bodies under territorial internal affairs bodies’. Official Legal Portal of Kazakhstan. https://adilet.zan.kz/rus/docs/V1900018695
National Cyber Security Index (2025). Kazakhstan: Index. https://ncsi.ega.ee/country/kz/
Nikkel, B. (2020). Fintech forensics: Criminal investigation and digital evidence in financial technologies. Forensic Science International: Digital Investigation, 33, 200908. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsidi.2020.200908
Nosál, J. (2023). Crime in the digital age: A new frontier. The Implications of Emerging Technologies in the Euro-Atlantic Space (pp. 177–193). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24673-9_11
Oderiy, O., Orobets, K., Brynzanska, O., Veklych, V., & Shpiliarevych, V. (2024). The impact of EU criminal law policy on the prevention of transnational environmental crime. Pakistan Journal of Criminology, 16(3), 1155–1172. https://doi.org/10.62271/pjc.16.3.1155.1172
Ramirez, F. (2022). The digital divide in the US criminal justice system. New Media & Society, 24(2), 514–529. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448211063190
Riepina, I., Hrybinenko, O., Parieva, N., Parieva, O., Savenko, I., & Durbalova, N. (2019). Quantity assessment of the risk of investment projects. International Journal of Recent Technology and Engineering, 8(3), 7256–7260. https://doi.org/10.35940/ijrte.C6338.098319
Republic of Kazakhstan (2025). The Criminal Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan: Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan No. 167. https://www.warnathgroup.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Kazakhstan-Criminal-Code.pdf
Runciman, B. (2020). Cybersecurity report 2020. ITNOW, 62(4), 28–29. https://doi.org/10.1093/itnow/bwaa103
Shukan, A., Erdogan, Y., & Karzhasova, G. (2025). The experience of the Republic of Turkey in combating cybercrime and issues of preventing criminal offenses in the field of information technologies. Bulletin of the Karaganda University. Law Series, 30(1), 80–86. https://doi.org/10.31489/2025l1/80-86
Smailov, N., Batyrgaliyev, A., Akhmediyarova, A., Seilova, N., Koshkinbayeva, M., Baigulbayeva, M., Romaniuk, R., Orunbekov, M., Assem, K., & Kotyra, A. (2021). Approaches to evaluating the quality of masking noise interference. International Journal of Electronics and Telecommunications, 67(1), 59–64. https://doi.org/10.24425/ijet.2021.135944
Stratton, G., Powell, A., & Cameron, R. (2017). Crime and justice in digital society: Towards a ‘digital criminology’? International Journal for Crime, Justice and Social Democracy, 6(2), 17–33. https://doi.org/10.5204/ijcjsd.v6i2.355
Sysoyev, A. K., Umetov, A. U., Lakbayev, K. S., & Rysmagambetova, G. M. (2020). The crimes in the field of high technology: Concept, problems and methods of counteraction in Kazakhstan. International Journal of Electronic Security and Digital Forensics, 12(4), 412. https://doi.org/10.1504/ijesdf.2020.10030688
UN System Chief Executives Board for Coordination (2025). Session report. https://unsceb.org/session-report-422
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2024). Countering cybercrime. https://www.unodc.org/unodc/urban-safety/countering-cybercrime.html
Yerjanov, T. K., Baimagambetova, Z. M., Seralieva, A. M., Zhailau, Z., & Sairambaeva, Z. T. (2018). Legal issues related to combating cybercrime: Experience of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Journal of Advanced Research in Law and Economics, 8(7), 2286.
Yerkenov, B. (2024). Legal instruments of combating legalization (laundering) of proceeds of crime in conditions of digital evolution of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Journal of Actual Problems of Jurisprudence, 111(3), 119–128. https://doi.org/10.26577/japj2024-111-i3-013
Zhakenov, K., Kultemirova, L., & Ibraeva, A. (2024). Comparative analysis of the activities of authorities to ensure the prevention of offenses in the Republic of Kazakhstan and other world countries. Security Journal, 37(4), 1430–1446. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41284-024-00425-5