Nigeria: Does Terrorism Spring from Economic Conditions?
Keywords:
Terrorism, Economic Deprivation, Nigeria.
Abstract
Over the last half-century, Nigeria has become one of Africa’s three giants along with Egypt and South Africa, thereby gaining considerable clout on the regional and global arenas. It is Africa’s largest oil producer and recent finds ensure Nigeria’s significance in the energy market for the foreseeable future. But the country has an inability or an unwillingness to distribute economic resources and development programs equitably. The primary objective of this paper is to find out whether economic condition leads to domestic terrorism in the country, as the contemporary Nigeria society is engulfed by terrible acts of Terrorism. This paper uses annual data for the time period 1970-2016 and the multivariate regression results suggest that government expenditure hinders terrorism, whereas macroeconomic policies foster it. Possible reasons for the outcomes and the policy implications of the findings were discussed.
References
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Kis-Katos, K., Liebert, H., and Schulze, G.G. (2011)."On the origin of domestic and international terrorism."European Journal of Political Economy, 27 (1),17-36.
Krueger, A.B., and Maleckova, J. (2003). "Education, poverty, political violence and terrorism: Is there a causal connection?",Journal of Economic Perspectives, 17(4), 119-144.
Krueger, A.B., and Laitin, D.D. (2007). "KtoKogo?: A cross-country study of the origins and targets of terrorism", terrorism, economic development, and political openness edited by Philip Keefer, Norman Loayza, Cambridge University Press.
Li, Q. (2005). "Does democracy promote or reduce transnational terrorist incidents?" Journal of Conflict Resolution, 49(2), 278-297.
Li, Q., and Schaub, D. (2004)."Economic globalization and transnational terrorism: A pooled time-series analysis", Journal of Conflict Resolution, 48(2), 230-258.
Merari, A. (1999). “Terrorism as a strategy of struggle: Past and future”.Terrorism and Political Violence ,11(4), 52-65.
NiajaGist.com (2013). Hezbollah terrorists camp found in Kano state Nigeria; Rocket propelled guns & dangerous ammunition recovered. http://naijagists.com/hezbollah-terrorists-camp-found-in-kano-state-nigeria-rocket-propelled-guns-dangerous-ammunition-recovered/
Omoke P. (2009). “Government expenditure and national income: A causality test forNigeria”.European Journal of Economic and Political Studies, 2(1), 1-11.
Onuoha, F. C. (2013). Jama'atuAnsarulMusilimina Fi Biladis Sudan: Nigeria’s evolving terrorist group. Report Aljazeeral Centre for Studies. http://studies.aljazeera.net/ResourceGallery/media/Documents/2013/3/14/2013314103734423734Nigerias%20Evolving%20Terrorist%20Group.pdf
Onwubiko, E. (2013). Corruption as terrorism.Guardian.http://www.ngrguardiannews.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=117753:corruption-as-terrorism&Itemid=730
Owoye, O. andOnafowora, O. A. (2007). M2 targeting, Money Demand and Real GDP growth in Nigeria: Do rules apply?, Journal of Business and Public Affairs,1(2),1-20.http://www.scientificjournals.org/journals2007/articles/1229.pdf
Oyeniyi, B. O. (2013). Terrorism in Nigeria: Groups, activities, and politics. Academia.edu. http://academia.edu/327799/Terrorism_in_Nigeria_Groups_Activities_and_Politics
Piazza, J. A.(2011)."Poverty, minority economic discrimination, and domestic terrorism."Journal of Peace Research ,48(3),339-53.
Sanchez-Cuenca, I., and De la Calle, L. (2009). "Domestic terrorism: The hidden side of political violence." Annual Review of Political Science, 12(1), 31-49.
Sevitenyi, L. N. (2012). "Government expenditure and economic growth in Nigeria: An empirical investigation (1961-2009)". The Journal of Economic Analysis, 1(1), 38-51.
UNICEF Nigeria (2007).The Nigerian situation.http://www.unicef.org/nigeria/1971_2199.html
Yildirima, J., Öcalb, N., and Korucuc, N. (2010).Analysing the determinants of terrorism in Turkey using geographically weighted regression.http://www.ub.edu/sea2009.com/Papers/10.pdf
Abimbola, J. O., and Adesote, S. A. (2012).“Domestic terrorism and Boko Haram insurgency in Nigeria, issues and trends: A historical discourse”. Journal of Arts and Contemporary Society, vol. 4. 11-29. http://www.cenresinpub.org/pub/Sept%20Edition%202012/JACS/Page%2011-19_842_.pdf
AEO (African Economic Outlook) (n.d.).Nigeria-Overview. http://www.africaneconomicoutlook.org/en/countries/west-africa/nigeria/
Anyanwu, C.M (2008). The role of monetary policy in achieving Nigeria’s Vision 2020 agenda.A paper presented at the Retraining of Middle Level Civil Servants at NIPSS Kuru, near Jos, Plateau State, on July 27 to August 03. http://www.google.com.ng/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&ved=0CCsQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ecolabconsult.com%2Fcomponent%2Fsimpledownload%2F%3Ftask%3Ddownload%26fileid%3D%252Fdownload%252FMonetary%2BPolicy%2Band%2BVision%2B2020%2Bteamworkv2.doc&ei=-R7gUY7MEIrQqgH_zoHABg&usg=AFQjCNEDLbDKbKkmJ4t4jAm7MDZNsNYWtw&bvm=bv.48705608,d.aWM
Berrebi, C. (2003). "Evidence about the link between education, poverty and terrorism among Palestinians", Working Papers 856, Princeton University, Department of Economics, Industrial Relations Section.
Burgoon B. (2006). "On welfare and terror: Social welfare policies and political economic roots of terrorism", Journal of Conflict Resolution, 4(50), 176-203.
Caruso, R., and Schneider, F. (2011).The socio-economic determinants of terrorism and political violence in Western Europe (1994-2007).European Journal of Political Economy,27(1),37–49.
Chima, O. (2011). Sanusi: Why Nigerians must accept non-interest banking. http://www.thisdaylive.com/articles/sanusi-why-nigerians-must-accept-non-interest-banking/99500
Derin-Gürey, P. (2009). Does terrorism have economic roots?http://www.imtlucca.it/_kbase/seminar_paper/006519_000245_.pdf
Dickey, D.A., and Fuller, W.A. (1979). Distributions of the estimators for autoregressive time series with a Unit Root, Journal of the American Statistical Association, 74(1), 427 -431.
Dickey, D.A., and Fuller, W.A. (1981). Likelihood Ratio Statistics for Autoregressive Time Series with a Unit Root, Journal of the American Statistical Association, 74,(1), 426-435.
DoubleGist.com (2013). An overview of Nigerian economy.http://www.doublegist.com/an-overview-of-nigerian-economy/
Enders, W., and Sandler, T. (1993). “The effectiveness of antiterrorism policies: A vectorautoregression-intervention analysis”. American Political Science Review, 87(4), 829-844.
Enders, W., and Sandler, T. (1999).“Transnational terrorism in the post–coldwarera”.International Studies Quarterly, 43(1),145-167.
Enders, W., and Sandler. T. (2000).“Is transnational terrorism becoming more threatening? A time series investigation”.Journal of Conflict Resolution, 44(3), 307-332.
Eckstein, Z., and Tsiddon, D. ( 2004). “Macroeconomic consequences of terror: Theory and the case of Israel”. Journal of monetary economics,51(5), 971–1002.
Enders, W., Parise, G. F., and Sandler, T. (1992). “A time-series analysis of transnational terrorism: Trends and cycles”. Defense Economics, 3(4), 305-320.
Enders, W., Sandler,T., and Gaibulloev, K. (2011). "Domestic versus transnational terrorism: Data, decomposition, and dynamics." Journal of Peace Research,48 (3), 319-37.
Fielding, D. (2003).“Counting the cost of the intifada: Consumption, saving and political instability in Israel”.Public Choice, 116(3-4), 297-312.
Fielding, D. (2004). “How does violent conflict affect investment location decisions? Evidence from Israel during the Intifada”.Journal of Peace Research, 41(4), 465-484.
Feldman, N. E., and Ruffle, B. J. (2008). "Religious terrorism: A cross-country analysis." In Economics of National Security, 1-32. Samuel NeamanInstitute, Haifa.
Forest, J.J.F. (2012). Confronting the terrorism of Boko Haram in Nigeria. JSOU Report 12-5. http://cco.dodlive.mil/files/2012/09/Boko_Haram_JSOU-Report-2012.pdf
Gstatic.com (n.d). Images.http://t1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQtWU0HhRE6hHXpKTu-hmb_PjBxdw4HYHjBA583Qfy89j3xFAgg
Gujarati, D.N. (2003). Basic Econometrics. New York: McGraw Hill Book Co.
Johansen, S., and Juselins, K. (1990). Maximum Likelihood Estimation and Influence on Cointegration with Application to Demand for Money, Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics.
Kio-Lawson, T., and MajekodunmiIn, I. (2011). The battle against “the new face of terrorism” in Nigeria: What weapons do we possess? Businessday newspaper.http://www.businessdayonline.com/NG/images/stories/9jaterror_320.jpg
Kis-Katos, K., Liebert, H., and Schulze, G.G. (2011)."On the origin of domestic and international terrorism."European Journal of Political Economy, 27 (1),17-36.
Krueger, A.B., and Maleckova, J. (2003). "Education, poverty, political violence and terrorism: Is there a causal connection?",Journal of Economic Perspectives, 17(4), 119-144.
Krueger, A.B., and Laitin, D.D. (2007). "KtoKogo?: A cross-country study of the origins and targets of terrorism", terrorism, economic development, and political openness edited by Philip Keefer, Norman Loayza, Cambridge University Press.
Li, Q. (2005). "Does democracy promote or reduce transnational terrorist incidents?" Journal of Conflict Resolution, 49(2), 278-297.
Li, Q., and Schaub, D. (2004)."Economic globalization and transnational terrorism: A pooled time-series analysis", Journal of Conflict Resolution, 48(2), 230-258.
Merari, A. (1999). “Terrorism as a strategy of struggle: Past and future”.Terrorism and Political Violence ,11(4), 52-65.
NiajaGist.com (2013). Hezbollah terrorists camp found in Kano state Nigeria; Rocket propelled guns & dangerous ammunition recovered. http://naijagists.com/hezbollah-terrorists-camp-found-in-kano-state-nigeria-rocket-propelled-guns-dangerous-ammunition-recovered/
Omoke P. (2009). “Government expenditure and national income: A causality test forNigeria”.European Journal of Economic and Political Studies, 2(1), 1-11.
Onuoha, F. C. (2013). Jama'atuAnsarulMusilimina Fi Biladis Sudan: Nigeria’s evolving terrorist group. Report Aljazeeral Centre for Studies. http://studies.aljazeera.net/ResourceGallery/media/Documents/2013/3/14/2013314103734423734Nigerias%20Evolving%20Terrorist%20Group.pdf
Onwubiko, E. (2013). Corruption as terrorism.Guardian.http://www.ngrguardiannews.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=117753:corruption-as-terrorism&Itemid=730
Owoye, O. andOnafowora, O. A. (2007). M2 targeting, Money Demand and Real GDP growth in Nigeria: Do rules apply?, Journal of Business and Public Affairs,1(2),1-20.http://www.scientificjournals.org/journals2007/articles/1229.pdf
Oyeniyi, B. O. (2013). Terrorism in Nigeria: Groups, activities, and politics. Academia.edu. http://academia.edu/327799/Terrorism_in_Nigeria_Groups_Activities_and_Politics
Piazza, J. A.(2011)."Poverty, minority economic discrimination, and domestic terrorism."Journal of Peace Research ,48(3),339-53.
Sanchez-Cuenca, I., and De la Calle, L. (2009). "Domestic terrorism: The hidden side of political violence." Annual Review of Political Science, 12(1), 31-49.
Sevitenyi, L. N. (2012). "Government expenditure and economic growth in Nigeria: An empirical investigation (1961-2009)". The Journal of Economic Analysis, 1(1), 38-51.
UNICEF Nigeria (2007).The Nigerian situation.http://www.unicef.org/nigeria/1971_2199.html
Yildirima, J., Öcalb, N., and Korucuc, N. (2010).Analysing the determinants of terrorism in Turkey using geographically weighted regression.http://www.ub.edu/sea2009.com/Papers/10.pdf
Published
2018-01-13
How to Cite
Okon, E. O. (2018). Nigeria: Does Terrorism Spring from Economic Conditions?. American Economic & Social Review, 2(1), 20-32. https://doi.org/10.46281/aesr.v2i1.151
Section
Research Paper/Theoretical Paper/Review Paper/Short Communication Paper
Copyright (c) 2018 Emmanuel O. Okon
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